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References to trans people in ancient texts
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References to transgender and gender-nonconforming people can be found across a wide range of ancient texts and cultures. While the terminology and concepts were different from modern understandings of gender identity, historical records show that many societies recognized—and often respected—individuals who lived outside the gender binary. Here's an overview of notable references from various cultures:
- Mesopotamia
Gala priests of Inanna (Sumer, ~2000 BCE):
The Gala were temple priests devoted to the goddess Inanna, many of whom were assigned male at birth but took on feminine names, clothing, and speech patterns.
Inanna’s mythology includes references to gender transformation. In one hymn, she turns men into women and vice versa.
- Ancient Egypt
While there's no direct evidence of a "transgender identity" in the modern sense, Hatshepsut, a female pharaoh (~1478 BCE), adopted male regalia and was portrayed with a beard, possibly reflecting a gender role shift in service to power and divinity.
Some scholars also point to gender-fluid representations of gods like Atum or Hapi, the latter often depicted with both male and female physical features.
- Ancient India
Hindu texts and epics:
The Mahabharata includes the story of Shikhandi, born female (as Shikhandini), who later lives as a man and plays a pivotal role in battle.
The deity Shiva appears as Ardhanarishvara, a composite of Shiva and his consort Parvati, half-male and half-female—symbolizing the unity of masculine and feminine.
Hijras, a traditional third gender group in South Asia, are mentioned in ancient Sanskrit and Tamil texts. They held significant ritual roles.
- Ancient Greece and Rome
The Tiresias myth tells of a man transformed into a woman for several years and then back again, giving him insights into both genders.
The cult of Cybele, a mother goddess, included Galli, priests who were assigned male at birth but often castrated themselves and wore women’s clothing, living as women or non-men.
Roman historians mention people who lived as a different gender, including Emperor Elagabalus (3rd century CE), who was said to have asked to be called a woman and even offered rewards to any physician who could perform gender-affirming surgery (though accounts may be biased or sensationalized).
- Indigenous and Non-Western Cultures
Although not "ancient texts" in the same way, many Indigenous oral traditions and pre-colonial records mention people with gender-diverse identities:
Two-Spirit people among many Native American cultures.
The fa'afafine in Samoa.
The bissu among the Bugis in Indonesia
, considered a meta-gender priestly class.