I have taken the time to read the articles you have attached. There is no evidence to suggest that this phenomena is exclusively down to gender. The studies don't take into account the qualifications, experience etc of those involved so there is no concrete proof, rather speculation. The Russian example is not a great one as the discrimination laws in Russia are decades behind the UK, so I can very well believe women are discriminated against. It's still legal to beat your wife over there!
'Male nurses earn more than female nurses, male teachers earn more than female teachers.' Again this is far too reductionist. Does the male teacher have a doctorate in Physics and been teaching for 25 years vs a female teaching Art for 5 years? These very important factors are never taken into account.
Gender pay gap in the UK - Office for National Statistics
Some interesting takes from this article:
'The gender pay gap measures the difference between average hourly earnings excluding overtime of men and women, as a proportion of men's average hourly earnings excluding overtime; it is a measure across all jobs in the UK, not of the difference in pay between men and women for doing the same job.'
'Our measure of the gender pay gap is the difference between average hourly earnings excluding overtime of men and women, as a proportion of men's average hourly earnings excluding overtime. It is a measure across all jobs in the UK, or across all jobs within a group, such as a specific occupation. It is not a measure of the difference in pay between men and women doing the same job, and with similar skills and experience.'
'In April 2024, median hourly earnings excluding overtime for full-time employees were £19.24 for men and £17.88 for women; for part-time employees, they were £13.00 for men and £13.40 for women.'
Why do you suppose PT men are paid less than PT women? Could it be they are doing different jobs....
The janitor vs maid comparison is another Red Herring. They are two different jobs. Where is the study of female janitors vs male janitors? If we are to make genuine comparisons a like for like study is the correct way, not apples to oranges.
Another interesting study:
The commuting gap: women are more likely than men to leave their job over a long commute - Office for National Statistics